The focus of this lesson is to consider the negative sustainability impacts of food production, and investigate solutions to these problems.
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
To Read | Lesson 9 Online Content | You're here! |
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If you have any general course questions, please post them to our HAVE A QUESTION discussion forum located under the Discussions tab in Canvas. I will check that discussion forum regularly to respond as appropriate. While you are there, feel free to post your own responses and comments if you are able to help out a classmate. If you have a question but would like to remain anonymous to the other students, email me through Canvas.
If you have something related to the material that you'd like to share, feel free to post to the Coffee Shop forum, also under the Discussions tab in Canvas.
Other than energy, it is through food that most of us most frequently directly interact with sustainability. Humans cannot survive without food, and most (and probably all) of you reading this eat multiple meals each day. The food industry has immense sustainability implications, including soil health and conservation, water use, forest clear-cutting, environmental and social justice, economics and equity, and much more. The following provides some insight into a few of these issues.
You probably recall from a previous lesson that irrigation is the single biggest user of freshwater in the United States. You may also recall the large water footprint of some common foods. The following are footprints of common main dishes, according to the Water Footprint Network [1] (see Water Footprint report [2]). (Note that these are global averages. Also, 1 litre/kg equals about 0.12 gal/lb.):
If you are interested, the Huffington Post does a nice job of comparing the water footprint of common foods [3]. (They use Water Footprint Network data.)
Almost all of the water used in producing meat is the result of irrigating the crops that are used to feed the animals, and some irrigation methods are more efficient than others. (Oregon State University Cooperative Extension provides a good analysis of various irrigation techniques [4] if you are interested in learning more.)
One sustainability impact that happens on more of a macro scale is something called a "dead zone." The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) explains dead zones [5] thus:
Less oxygen dissolved in the water is often referred to as a “dead zone” because most marine life either dies, or, if they are mobile such as fish, leave the area. Habitats that would normally be teeming with life become, essentially, biological deserts.
Hypoxic zones can occur naturally, but scientists are concerned about the areas created or enhanced by human activity. There are many physical, chemical, and biological factors that combine to create dead zones, but nutrient pollution is the primary cause of those zones created by humans. Excess nutrients that run off land or are piped as wastewater into rivers and coasts can stimulate an overgrowth of algae, which then sinks and decomposes in the water. The decomposition process consumes oxygen and depletes the supply available to healthy marine life.
Dead zones occur in many areas of the country, particularly along the East Coast, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great Lakes, but there is no part of the country or the world that is immune. The second largest dead zone in the world is located in the U.S., in the northern Gulf of Mexico.
Dead zones happen all over the world and are in fact a natural occurrence. However, humans have significantly increased the incidence of dead zones, including the one in the Gulf of Mexico, which grows to about the size of New Jersey every summer, as you will see in the video below. These dead zones are caused by eutrophication, which is when a body of water has an excessive amount of nutrients (primarily nitrogen and phosphorous) that lead to unusually high plant/algae growth. (Note that eutrophication just refers to excess nutrients, but this often results in a dead zone.) When eutrophic streams and rivers empty into ponds, lakes, or other open bodies of water (such as the Gulf of Mexico), it causes excessive algae growth and ultimately leads to anoxic ("oxygen-less") conditions near the bottom of these bodies of water. NOAA does a good job of explaining eutrophication in the video below.
Eutrophication has a few anthropogenic causes, but the primary one is the use of artificial fertilizers on farms. Fertilizers feed plants, but if they get into bodies of water they feed algae. The video below from NOAA provides a good explanation of this. Please note that the explanation at the end of the video of what causes the dead zone is incomplete: waste from organisms that eat the phytoplankton plays a role in the dead zone, but (as described in the video above) the main cause of dead zones is when bacteria eat the dead phytoplankton after they sink to the bottom.
Over the past 10 - 15 years, food deserts have (slowly) become a more prominent issue. The following is a summary from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control [6] (emphasis added):
Food Desert
Food deserts are areas that lack access to affordable fruits, vegetables, whole grains, low-fat milk, and other foods that make up a full and healthy diet (1). Many Americans living in rural, minority, or low-income areas are subjected to food deserts and may be unable to access affordable, healthy foods, leaving their diets lacking essential nutrients.What's the Problem?
Rural, minority, and low income areas are often the sites of food deserts because they lack large, retail food markets and have a higher number of convenience stores, where healthy foods are less available (2). Studies have shown that food deserts can negatively affect health outcomes but more research must be done to show how that influence occurs. There appears to be a link between access to affordable nutritious foods and the eating of these foods, meaning less access may lead to less incorporation of healthy foods into the populations’ diets.Who's at Risk?
Because there is no standard definition of a food desert, estimates of how much of the population is affected vary by quite a bit. However, it’s safe to say that many Americans have limited access to affordable nutritious foods because they do not live near a supermarket or large grocery store. Transportation is specifically part of the USDA food desert definition. Only common theme among food desert definitions is that there is limited access.Can It Be Prevented?
Food deserts can be improved through several different types of efforts. Establishing a community garden where participants share in the maintenance and products of the garden and organizing local farmers markets are two efforts that community members themselves can do (3, 4). Local governments can improve local transportation like buses and metros to allow for easier access to established markets (5). They can also change zoning codes and offer economic or tax incentives to attract retailers with healthier food offerings to the area (6).The Bottom Line
Food deserts are a big problem for many Americans that may limit their ability to eat healthy and nutritious foods on a regular basis. However, there are a variety of ways that local governments and community members can both improve food access in their neighborhoods.Case Example
Maria is a 60-year-old woman living in a low-income area of St. Louis. As she’s gotten older, she hasn’t been able to get around as well and doesn’t have a car. She usually eats a lot of unhealthy and microwavable foods because the closest store to her apartment is the local convenience store around the corner. She wishes that she could eat better and begins talking to some of her neighbors and other families in the building to get their input. Maria and her next-door neighbor Sylvia organize all the residents in their building to establish a community garden on the roof of the building so that they will all have fresh fruits and vegetables to share.
As indicated above, there is no one definition of a food desert, but it is meant to indicate a lack of access to fresh foods. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) considers three ways to define a food desert [7]. (The number of people in the U.S. in each category as of 2017 are in parentheses.):
The USDA has created a Food Access Research Atlas (available here) [8], where you can explore food deserts across the U.S. Feel free to tool around with it. (You will have to explore it for this week's quiz.)
A topic closely related to food deserts is food insecurity. The USDA defines food insecurity [9] and very low food security as follows:
The USDA provides an annual report and analysis on food insecurity in the U.S. through its Economic Research Service. Highlights (okay, lowlights) from the "Household Food Security in the United States 2017 [10]" report summary (full Household Food Security [11]report available here [11]) include:
Permaculture is another one of those concepts that have no single definition, but I like the succinct definition offered by Geoff Lawton [12], one of the more well-known permaculture teachers and practitioners in the world when he stated that permaculture is "a system of design that provides all of the needs for humanity in a way that benefits the environment." Another way to describe it is "designing human systems to mimic natural systems" and "designing systems that work with nature instead of against it." No matter how you define it, it refers to a design system - it integrates concepts from a wide array of disciplines/topics (hydrology, soil science, biology, ecology, renewable energy, forestry, and more) - and utilizes them when designing systems, such as gardens, farms, houses, neighborhoods, and more. It is most commonly used to design food systems, though. Everything from a backyard garden to a large farm can be designed using these principles.
The concept and term "permaculture" was coined by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren in Australia in the 1970s. It was originally a concatenation of the terms "permanent agriculture" because it initially focused on food production systems, but came to be known as a shortened form of "permanent culture" because it can be used to address all aspects of human culture/settlements.
The Permaculture Research Institute provides an excellent one-page description of permaculture. Please read through it before continuing.
The following are some highlights from the reading:
I want you to consider one additional concept that is mentioned in this summary. They mention that permaculture helps establish resilience. Resilience can be thought of as the ability to return to an original state after encountering a shock to the system. This has become a major focus of sustainability efforts. People recognize that "bad" things such as climate change, oil price spikes, and economic collapse will happen, but we do not know when. Much effort in sustainability design, thought, and policy is focused on establishing resilient communities (and cities, states, and countries) that will be able to withstand such shocks in such a way that suffering and distress will be minimized.
From a climate change perspective, this is primarily a focus on adaptation, i.e., adapting our communities to thrive in an uncertain climate future. This usually involves things such as using renewable energy (and not relying entirely on the national grid, e.g.), producing food locally (instead of relying on world markets), mitigating and/or avoiding flooding in low-lying areas, using more low-carbon transportation methods (e.g., bike and pedestrian infrastructure) and in general becoming more self-sufficient. This is a major focus of the Transition Town movement [14], but cities, towns, and states/provinces all over the world have engaged in planning for resiliency. For example, the state of Colorado has its own Resiliency Resource Center [15], which is operated out of the Department of Local Affairs.
The video below summarizes a lot of these concepts and adds a few others. It also provides a few examples of permaculture.
Most of this reiterates much of what is written above, but there are a few more things I'd like to point out:
Hopefully, by now you have a solid understanding of what permaculture is, as well as its core ethics. Permaculture also has a set of 12 principles that should be used to guide all design decisions. The video below from Oregon State University provides a good overview of these principles, and examples of how they can be applied. You will not be expected to memorize them, but it will be helpful to have a general understanding of each.
Permacultureprinciples.com provides an excellent in-depth explanation [16] of each of these principles and also provides a ton of examples of each principle. If you want to explore any of the principles more (this is optional but strongly suggested if/when you have some time), including examples of concrete applications, click on the links to each item below. They even have a song for each principle, which is a nice touch! All quotes are taken from the permacultureprinciples.com site.
One other thing that I'd like to note before moving on is that while remembering and applying these principles takes a lot of effort, a properly designed permaculture system significantly minimizes effort once it is established! For example, a well-designed permaculture garden will require almost no active watering (it should be rain-fed), does not require the constant addition of fertilizers (it should be mostly self-sufficient), does not need pesticides (most pests should be eliminated by beneficial insects, chickens, or other natural biological solutions, and things like proper air flow and sunlight), and it minimizes replanting (true permaculture uses mostly perennials, not annual plants). A properly designed urban environment will optimize the use of local resources such as renewable energy, local food sources, and low-impact transportation. Such an urban system should also provide resources to help all people thrive, thus minimizing the need for social services.
Please note that people spend their whole lives researching and applying permaculture - we are only scratching the surface! But hopefully, you have a reasonably good understanding of what permaculture is and how it can be applied. The following is a brief summary of some key points:
Permaculture provides a practical framework for addressing food sustainability issues, but there are many other specific practices and concepts that can contribute solutions as well. See below for a description of a few of them. There are many more than this, but these are some that we may/will encounter when traveling.
Regenerative agriculture is closely related to permaculture, but not all permaculture food production systems are regenerative. As you might guess, regenerative agriculture refers to food growing methods that improve the natural environment, i.e., they regenerate local ecosystems. Terra Genesis International [29] provides a great synopsis of this concept. Note their use of the term ecosystem services. (If you are so inclined, they have more information on their site.):
Regenerative Agriculture is a system of farming principles and practices that increases biodiversity, enriches soils, improves watersheds, and enhances ecosystem services.
Regenerative Agriculture aims to capture carbon in soil and aboveground biomass, reversing current global trends of atmospheric accumulation.
At the same time, it offers increased yields, resilience to climate instability, and higher health and vitality for farming and ranching communities.
The system draws from decades of scientific and applied research by the global communities of organic farming, agroecology, Holistic Management, and agroforestry.
Common techniques include planting native crops that enhance biodiversity, using biochar to improve soil quality and sequester carbon, integrating animals and crops into a self-sufficient system, only using organic farming methods, and more. Like permaculture, regenerative agriculture recognizes that these systems will provide feedback and change over time and that farmers must be ready to adapt their systems as needed.
Community gardens are defined by the USDA [30] as "plots of land, usually in urban areas, that are rented by individuals or groups for private gardens or are for the benefit of the people caring for the garden." Community gardens can take on many forms, but the most common one consists of any number of individual beds (from a few to a hundred or more) that are tended by individuals or groups. Most community gardens are structured such that each bed is "rented" out for a nominal annual fee, and the renter manages their bed. Community gardens typically supply water and soil, and sometimes resources such as seeds and labor assistance. They are usually overseen by a manager, but they often host group events and expect individual gardeners to help out with tasks that benefit the whole garden community. These are most common in urban areas where residents do not possess adequate space to grow their own food but can be found in many other areas. They can be found all over the world. Most gardens have a set of rules governing them, such as the types of plants they can grow and what they can use in their beds (e.g., by only using organic growing methods).
Community gardens can also take the form of school gardens located on or near school property. They can be established in elementary, middle, high school, and college environments. The goals of school gardens usually include garden, food, and/or nutrition education, though many urban gardens provide this service as well. Therapy gardens are sometimes established so that they can be accessed by people with physical and/or mental issues, as gardening has therapeutic effects. Many gardens include initiatives to grow food to donate to local organizations such as food banks.
Research has shown that there are many benefits to community gardens, including but not limited to the following. (All links originally gathered from North Carolina State University Cooperative Extension [31]:
There are many more studies that demonstrate the benefits of community gardens. If you have ever participated in one, you would probably be able to list a few more! It is important to note that research shows that the benefits of community gardens are particularly pronounced in low-income areas, and thus are a recognized strategy to address equity and social justice (but also environment and economy!).
You may have encountered Fair Trade goods such as coffee or chocolate when food shopping, or perhaps at a coffee shop. A fair trade good usually has a distinctive logo such as the one below. The purpose of fair trade certification is primarily to ensure that the workers throughout the supply chain were paid a fair wage. These certifications are affirmed by third-party certifiers that have no affiliation with the product at hand. They investigate the entire supply chain of the product and certify the product if it meets their standard.
One of the most common certifiers is Fair Trade Certified [38]TM (I cannot show their logo due to copyright.) They list [39] the following four standards that must be met in order to obtain certification:
- Income sustainability: ...Our standards ensure producers, workers, farmers, and fishermen have the money needed to invest in their lives and their work.
- Empowerment: Fair Trade empowers people to make choices for the good of themselves and their community, regardless of gender, status, position in society, or position on the globe. Rigorous standards give farmers, workers, and fishermen a voice in the workplace and the community.
- Individual and community well-being: ...Our model is fueled by committees of farmers, workers, and fishermen who decide how to invest the Fair Trade Premium based on their community's greatest needs: often clean water, education, and healthcare.
- Environmental stewardship: ...Our standards work to keep the planet healthy for generations to come by prohibiting the most harmful chemicals and taking measures to protect natural resources.
As you can see, fair trade can address issues beyond providing living wages. Generally speaking, it is better to buy fair trade certified goods than non-certified goods, but it is best to investigate individual certifiers to ascertain how legitimate they are.
Merriam-Webster [40] provides a good definition of appropriate technology:
technology that is suitable to the social and economic conditions of the geographic area in which it is to be applied, is environmentally sound, and promotes self-sufficiency on the part of those using it.
The use of appropriate technology is a particularly important consideration when providing assistance to low income or otherwise marginalized communities. The idea behind appropriate technology is to make sure that any solutions proposed and/or aid provided is appropriate for the local conditions. These "conditions" can include local natural resources, but very often include local human capital, such as local knowledge, expertise, and physical capabilities. As indicated in the definition, it must promote self-sufficiency (which goes hand-in-hand with the first point).
For example, if a well-meaning organization travels to rural Mongolia or Peru to install a solar array and provide electricity, they must consider whether the locals that they are trying to help have the expertise to repair the system if it breaks down. Perhaps there is existing local expertise, or perhaps they need to be trained. Also, can they get replacement parts if they are needed? Are the solar arrays and components at risk for damage due to local wildlife or human populations? These are all questions that must be asked if self-sufficiency is to be addressed. One of the best ways to utilize appropriate technology is to work with the local populations to help them come up with solutions, instead of telling them what to do. Most likely they will have a wealth of knowledge to offer regarding the local conditions (they live there, after all!), but they likely also have experience trying to implement solutions.
The National Center for Appropriate Technology [41] in the U.S. provides a number of examples and explanations if you are so inclined. They work primarily with low-income populations in the U.S. to provide services such as energy assistance and sustainable, local food systems.
Here are some more site visits! Again, this is not required reading. I suggest browsing through them if/when you have time. This may help inspire your final project proposals!
By now you should be able to do all of the following:
You have reached the end of Lesson 9! Double-check the to-do list on the Lesson 9 Overview page [46] to make sure you have completed all of the activities listed there before you begin Lesson 10.
Links
[1] http://waterfootprint.org/en/resources/interactive-tools/product-gallery/
[2] http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report47-WaterFootprintCrops-Vol1.pdf
[3] http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/10/13/food-water-footprint_n_5952862.html
[4] http://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/catalog/files/project/pdf/em8783.pdf
[5] http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html
[6] https://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/toolstemplates/entertainmented/tips/FoodDesert.html
[7] http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-access-research-atlas/documentation/
[8] http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-access-research-atlas/go-to-the-atlas/
[9] http://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/90023/err256_summary.pdf?v=0
[10] https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/90023/err256_summary.pdf?v=0
[11] http://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/90023/err-256.pdf?v=0
[12] http://permaculturenews.org/what-is-permaculture/
[13] https://permaculturenews.org/what-is-permaculture/
[14] https://transitionnetwork.org/
[15] https://www.coresiliency.com/resiliency-frameworks
[16] http://permacultureprinciples.com/
[17] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_1/
[18] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_2/
[19] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_3/
[20] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_4/
[21] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_5/
[22] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_6/
[23] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_7/
[24] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_8/
[25] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_9/
[26] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_10/
[27] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_11/
[28] https://permacultureprinciples.com/principles/_12/
[29] http://www.regenerativeagriculturedefinition.com/
[30] https://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/community-gardening
[31] https://nccommunitygardens.ces.ncsu.edu/nccommunitygardens-research/
[32] http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2010.300111
[33] http://nccommunitygardens.ces.ncsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/researchBeenVoicuEffectof-CG-of-Property-Value.pdf?fwd=no
[34] https://nccommunitygardens.ces.ncsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/researchArmstrongSurveyNYHealthCommunityDevelopment.pdf?fwd=no
[35] https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1359105310365577
[36] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2008_community_garden_JacksonvilleFL_2527237610.png
[37] https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en
[38] https://www.fairtradecertified.org/
[39] https://www.fairtradecertified.org/why-fair-trade
[40] https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/appropriate%20technology
[41] https://www.ncat.org/
[42] https://blackcatboulder.com/
[43] http://sustainablesettings.org/
[44] https://dug.org/
[45] https://dug.org/about-delaney-community-farm/
[46] https://www.e-education.psu.edu/emsc470/695