Geospatial thinking is key to designing GIS functionality. Here, geospatial thinking is spatial thinking related to the earth. Spatial thinking includes processes that support exploration and understanding. An expert spatial thinker visualizes relations, imagines transformations from one scale to another, mentally rotates an object to look at its other sides, creates a new viewing angle or perspective, and remembers images in places and spaces. Spatial thinking also allows us to externalize these operations by creating representations such as a map.
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Now, let's begin Lesson 3...
To finish this lesson, you must complete the activities listed below. You may find it useful to print this page out first so that you can follow along with the directions.
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1 | Read the lesson Overview and Checklist. | You are in the Lesson 3 online content now. The Overview page is previous to this page, and you are on the Checklist page right now. |
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Online content (Read) |
There are three different styles of reading that are referred to in the lessons:
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3 | View the Lesson Introduction. | You are in the Lesson 3 online content now. Click on the "Next Page" link to access the Lecture/Discussion. |
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Geospatial Think-Piece (Template) [2] |
Using Word (or a word processing program compatible with Microsoft® Word) and the Geospatial Thinking Aid provided in this lesson, briefly describe (< 500 Words): the (1) behavioral, (2) physical, and(3) cognitive geospatial aspects of a "town and gown" problem such a noise code violation. Town and gown are two distinct communities of a university town; "town" being the non-academic population and "gown" metonymically being the university community. Name your file Lsn3_YourName.doc, Please turn-in your document the Lesson 3 Dropbox in ANGEL. |
5 | Read lesson Summary. | You are in the Lesson 3 online content now. |
Spatial thinking begins with the ability to use space as a framework. An object can be specified relative to the observer, to the environment, to its own intrinsic structure, or to other objects in the environment. Each instance requires the adoption of specific spatial frames of reference or context. The process of interpretation begins with data which is generally context-free numbers, text, or symbols. Information is derived from data by implying some degree of selection, organization, and preparation for a purpose — in other words, the data is placed into a spatial context. For example, the elevation at a specific location is an example of data; however, the elevation only has meaning when placed in context of sea level. The spatial context is critical because it is the space the data is in that ultimately determines its interpretation. There are three spatial contexts within which we can make the data-to-information transition; these include behavioral spaces, physical spaces, and cognitive spaces. In all cases, space provides an interpretive context that gives meaning to the data.
Learning to think spatially is to consider objects in terms of their context. This is to say, the object's location in behavioral space, physical space, or cognitive space, to question why objects are located where they are, and to visualize relationships between and among these objects. The key skills of spatial thinking include the ability to:
Golledge’s First-Order Primitives constitute a broad list of cognitive schemes for geospatial analysis (R. G. Golledge "Do People Understand Spatial Concepts: The case of First-Order Primitives", Theories and Models of Spatio-Temporal Reasoning in Geographic Space. Pisa: Springer-Verlag, 1992). The schemas are:
The three well known reasoning processes trace the development of analytic beliefs along different paths. Inductive reasoning reveals “that something is probably true," deductive reasoning demonstrates “that something is necessarily true.” It is generally accepted that both are limited: inductive reasoning leads to multiple, equally likely solutions, and deductive reasoning is subject to error. Therefore, a third aid to judgment, abductive reasoning, showing “that something is plausibly true,” is used to offset the limitations of the others. While analysts who employ all three guides to sound judgment stand to be the most persuasive, fallacious reasoning or mischaracterization of rules, cases, or results in any of the three can affect reasoning using the others.
It is not too far of a stretch to say that people who are drawn to the discipline of geography have minds accustomed to assembling information into three-dimensional mental schemas. We construct schemas in our mind, rotate them, and view them from many angles. Furthermore, the experienced geospatial professional imagines spatial schemas influenced in the fourth dimension, time. We mentally replay time series of the schema. So easy is the geospatial professional’s ability to assemble multidimensional models that the expert does it with incomplete data. We mentally fill in gaps, making an intuitive leap toward a working schema with barely enough data to perceive even the most rudimentary spatial patterns. This is a sophisticated form of geospatial reasoning. Expertise increases with experience because as we come across additional schemas, our mind continuously expands to accommodate them. This might be called spatial awareness. Being a visual-spatial learner, instead of feeling daunted by the abundance and complexity of data, we find pleasure in recognizing the patterns. Are we crazy? No, this is what is called a visual-spatial mind. Some also call these people right brain thinkers.
The concept of right brain and left brain thinking developed from the research of psychobiologist Roger W. Sperry. Sperry discovered that the human brain has two different ways of thinking. The right brain is visual and processes information in an intuitive and simultaneous way, looking first at the whole picture then the details. The left brain is verbal and processes information in an analytical and sequential way, looking first at the pieces then putting them together to get the whole. Some individuals are more whole-brained and equally adept at both modes.
The qualities of the Visual-Spatial person are well documented but not well known (Visual-Spatial Resource [3]). Visual-spatial thinkers are individuals who think in pictures rather than in words. They have a different brain organization than sequential thinkers. They are whole-part thinkers who think in terms of the big picture first before they examine the details. They are non-sequential, which means that they do not think and learn in the step-by-step manner. They arrive at correct solutions without taking steps. They may have difficulty with easy tasks, but show a unique ability with difficult, complex tasks. They are systems thinkers who can orchestrate large amounts of information from different domains, but they often miss the details.
Sarah Andrews [4] likens some contrasting thought processes to a cog railway. Data must be in a set sequence in order to process it through a workflow. In order to answer a given question, the thinker needs information fed to him in order. He will apply a standardized method towards arriving at a pragmatic answer, check his results, and move on to the next question. In order to move comfortably through this routine, he requires that a rigid set of rules be in place. This is compared with the geospatial analyst who grabs information in whatever order, and instead of crunching down a straight-line, formulaic route toward an answer, makes an intuitive, mental leap toward the simultaneous perception of a group of possible answers. The answers may overlap, but none are perfect. In response to this ambiguity, the geospatial analyst develops a risk assessment, chooses the best working answer from this group, and proceeds to improve the estimate by gathering further data. Unlike, the engineer, whose formulaic approach requires that the unquestioned authority of the formula exist in order to proceed, the geospatial intelligence professional questions all authority, be it in the form of a human or acquired data.
Geospatial thinking is the essence of designing GIS functionality. Geospatial thinking is spatial thinking related to the earth. The following geospatial thinking process is simply offered as a structure to make sure that key concepts are not overlooked. Nothing here is likely new to the skilled geospatial thinker, but it is purely a reminder of the actions that can help the designer think about geospatial problems.
Action 1: Identify the entity or event the system is being designed to address or manipulate. This entity can be natural and human phenomena relative to the problem.
Action 2: Think about the entity or event in the space contexts. The definition of the spatial presence of an entity is the prerequisite for spatial thinking. The spatial context is critical because it is the space the entity is in that ultimately determines its interpretation. There are three spatial contexts within which we can make the data-to-information transition. These are:
In all cases, space provides an interpretive context that gives meaning.
Action 3: Place the phenomena in the context of the earth. When making sense about the space (Gershmehl and Gershmehl, 2006) the spatial thinker first asks the fundamental spatial questions:
Action 4: Examine the qualities of the objects or events. The spatial thinking then proceeds to examine the places by asking the following questions:
Return to Action 2 if you have not explored all of the space contexts. Note the qualities for each space.
Action 5: Recalling the results of Action 4, examine the space-time relationship between the objects and/or event. Last, the comparisons are placed into the context of space and time. Spatial thinking goes beyond a simple identification of locations. It involves comparing locations, considering the influence of nearby features, grouping regions and hierarchies, and identifying distant places that have similar conditions. It is also the consideration of change, movement and diffusion through time and place. This is spatiotemporal thinking which asks the questions:
Note the time-space relationships.
The geospatial professional is a “knowledge worker” or “symbol analyst” (a term used by the U.S. Department of Labor) who carries out multi-step operations, manipulates abstract and complex symbols and ideas, acquires new information efficiently, and remains flexible enough to recognize change. Successful knowledge work requires intensive study, practice, and commitment. Professionalism in the area calls for a broad experience and understanding of the basic concepts of the profession. The individual who is only interested in technology, important as it is, is therefore not fully professional. Nor is the technical expert ipso facto a professional.
Links
[1] https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog468/sites/www.e-education.psu.edu.geog468/files/New_Lesson_3/Spatial%20Thinking%204.pptx
[2] https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog468/sites/www.e-education.psu.edu.geog468/files/Misc/Think-Piece%20Template.docx
[3] http://www.visualspatial.org/
[4] http://www.sarahandrews.net/Geologist_as_Detective.pdf